If you just started to deal with radio engineering, I will tell you about this article, how are radio components in the scheme are called on it, and which appearance.

Here you learn how the transistor, a diode, capacitor, chip, relay, etc.

Please make it up for more.

As denoted bipolar transistor

All transistors have three outputs, and if it is bipolar, then there are two types, as can be seen from the image PNP transition and NPN transition. And three outputs have the names of E-Emitter, to-collector and B-base. Where what conclusion on the transistor itself is looking for on the directory, or enter the name of the transistor + conclusions in the search.

Appearance It has the transistor next, and this is only a small part of their appearance, existing denominations are full.

As the polar transistor is denoted

There are already three outputs of the following name, it is a z-shutter, and -stock, s-flow

But the appearance is very little different, and more precisely may have the same base. The question of how it is, and this is already from reference books or the Internet to designate written in the base.

As the condenser is denoted

Capacitors are like polar and non-polar.

Their difference is that the polar indicates one of the conclusions of the "+" icon. And the container is measured in the microfrace "MKF".

And they have such an appearance, it is worth considering that if the condenser is polar, then the conclusion is denoted on the base with one of the sides of the legs, only already in the main sign "-".

As denoted diode and LED

The designation of the LED and diode in the diagram is distinguished by the fact that the LED of the prisoners and the outgoing two arrows. But the role of their different diode is used to straighten the current, and the LED is already for the emission of light.

And have such an appearance of LEDs.

And this kind of ordinary rectaging and impulse diodes for example:

As the microcircuit is denoted.

Chips are a reduced circuit that performs one or another function, and there may be a large number of transistors.

And they have such an appearance.

Relay designation

I think about them in the first time, the motorists were heard, especially the drivers of the Zhiguli.

Since when there were no injectors and transistors were not widespread, in the headlight car, cigarette lighter, starter, and everything was almost turned on and controlled through the relay.

Such Samem simple scheme relay.

Here everything is simple, a current voltage is supplied to the electromagnetic coil, and that in turn closes or unlocks the section of the chain.

This article ends.

If there is a desire what you want to see radio components in the next article, write in the comments.

Polarity of cylindrical battery Conditional graphic designation
and conditional graphic designation. Batteries in the scheme in accordance with GOST.

Battery designation by electrical circuits Contains a short feature that denotes a negative pole and a long line - a positive pole. Single battery used to power the device in the diagrams are latin letter G, and a battery consisting of several batteries GB letters.

Examples of the use of the designation of the batteries in the schemes.

The simplest conditional graphic designation of the battery or battery in accordance with GOST is used in Scheme 1. A more informative battery designation in accordance with GOST is used in Scheme 2, the number of batteries in the group battery is reflected here, the battery voltage and the positive pole are indicated. GOST allows you to use the battery designation applied in Scheme 3.

Battery connection schemes

Often B. household appliances It is found to use several cylindrical batteries. The inclusion of different quantities of series connected batteries allows you to receive power supplies that provide various voltages. Such a battery pack provides voltage equal to the sum of the voltages of all incoming batteries.

The sequential connection of the three batteries with a voltage of 1.5 volt provides the supply voltage of the device of 4.5 volts.

With a consistent turning on the batteries, the current, which is reduced, is reduced due to the increasing internal resistance Power source.

Connecting batteries to the console remote control TV.

For example, we are faced with the sequential inclusion of the batteries when replacing them in the TV control panel.
Parallel inclusion of batteries is rarely used. The advantage of parallel inclusion consists in an increase in the load current assembled in this way of power supply. The voltage of the included parallel batteries remains the same equal to the nominal voltage of one battery, and the discharge current increases in proportion to the number of integrated batteries. Several weak batteries can be replaced by one more powerful, so it is meaningless to use parallel inclusion for low-power batteries. In parallel, it makes sense only powerful batteries, due to the lack of or high-cost batteries with even more discharge current.

Parallel inclusion of batteries.

Such an inclusion has a flaw. Batteries cannot have exactly the coinciding voltage on contacts when the load is disconnected. At one battery, this voltage can be 1.45 volts, and another 1.5 volt. This will cause current from the battery with a large voltage to the battery with smaller. There will be a discharge when installing the batteries in the device compartments when the load is disconnected. In the future, with this inclusion scheme, the self-discharge occurs faster than with a consistent inclusion.
Combining a sequential and parallel battery connection can be obtained by different battery power source.

First transistor

In the photo on the right you see the first working transistor, which was created in 1947 by three scientists - Walter Brattene, John Bardin and William Shockley.

Despite the fact that the first transistor had a not very presentable appearance, it did not prevent him from producing a revolution in electronics.

It is difficult to assume what the current civilization would be if the transistor was not invented.

The transistor is the first solid-time device that can enhance, generate and convert an electrical signal. It does not have prone vibration parts, has compact sizes. This makes it very attractive for use in electronics.

It was a small joining, and now let's understand in more detail in what is the transistor.

First it is worth reminding that transistors are divided into two large class. The first is the so-called bipolar, and the second - field (they are unipolar). The basis of both field and bipolar transistors is a semiconductor. The main material for the production of semiconductors is Germany and silicon, as well as the compound Gallium and arsenic - Galliya Arsenide ( Gaas.).

It is worth noting that silicon-based transistors are the greatest distribution, although this fact may soon shake out, since the development of technologies is continuous.

It so happened, but at the beginning of the development of semiconductor technology, a bipolar transistor took a leading place. But not many know that the initial rate was made to create a field transistor. He was brought to mind later. About the field MOSFET transistors read.

Let's not go into detailed description Transistor devices by physical levelAnd first we find out how it is indicated on the concepts. For beginners in electronics it is very important.

To begin with, it must be said that bipolar transistors can be of two different structures. This is the structure of P-N-P and N-P-N. So far, we will not go into the theory, just remember that the bipolar transistor may either have a P-N-P structure or N-P-N.

On the concept schemes, bipolar transistors are indicated like this.

As we see, the figure shows two conditional graphics designations. If the arrow inside the circle is directed to the central drawing, then this is a transistor with a P-N-P structure. If the arrow is directed to the outside, it has the structure of N-P-N.

Little advice.

In order not to memorize the conditional designation, and the type of conductivity (p-n-p or n-p-n) of the bipolar transistor cannot be determined, it is possible to apply such an analogy.

First we look where the arrow indicates on the conventional image. Next, we present that we go in the direction of the arrow, and if we rest in the "wall" - the vertical line - then, it means "the passage N.eats "! " N.et "means P- n.-p (p- N.-P ).

Well, if we go, and do not rest in the "wall", the transistor is shown in the diagram n-P-N structures. A similar analogy can be used in relation field transistors When determining the type of channel (N or P). About the designation of different field transistors in the diagram read

Usually, discrete, that is, a separate transistor has three outputs. Previously, it was even called semiconductor trigger. Sometimes it can have four conclusions, but the fourth serves to connect the metal case to the general wire. It is shielding and not associated with other conclusions. Also, one of the conclusions, usually this collector (about him will be further), may have the shape of the flange for fastening to the cooling radirator or be part of the metal housing.

Take a look. The photo shows various transistors of still Soviet production, as well as the beginning of the 90s.

But this is already modern imports.

Each of the conveyor conclusions has its own purpose and name: base, emitter and collector. Usually these names reduce and write simply b ( Base), E ( Emitter), K ( Collector). On foreign circuits, the collector output marks the letter C.it's from the word Collector - "Collector" (verb Collect. - "collect"). Base output marks as B., from the word Base. (from English. Base - "Main"). This is a control electrode. Well, and the output of the emitter is denoted by the letter E., from the word Emitter. - "Issuer" or "Emission source". IN this case The emitter serves as an electron source, so to speak, supplier.

IN electronic circuit The conclusions of the transistors need to be soldered, strictly observing the clook. That is, the collector output is seen in that part of the scheme where it must be connected. It is impossible instead of the output of the base to file collector or emitter output. Otherwise, the scheme will not work.

How to find out where on the concept of the transistor the collector, and where is the emitter? Everything is simple. The output that the arrow is always an emitter. The one that is drawn perpendicularly (at an angle of 90 0) to the central feature is the base of the base. And the one that remains is a collector.

Also on concept circuits The transistor is marked with a symbol. Vt. or Q.. In the old Soviet books on electronics, you can meet the designation in the form of the letter V. or T.. The following transistor's sequence number is specified in the scheme, for example, Q505 or VT33. It should be borne in mind that the letters VT and Q are indicated not only bipolar transistors, but also fields including.

In real electronics, transistors are easily confused with other electronic components, for example, simistors, thyristors, integral stabilizers, since they have the same housing. It is especially easy to get confused when an unknown marking is applied on the electronic component.

In this case, you need to know that the positioning markup is made on many printed circuit boards and the type of item is specified. This is the so-called silk-screen print. So pCB Next to the detail can be written Q305. This means that this element of the transistor and its sequence number in a schematic diagram - 305. It also happens that the name of the transistor's electrode is indicated next to the outputs. So, if there is a letter E next to the output, then this is an emitter electrode of the transistor. Thus, it is possible to cleanly visually determine what is installed on the board - the transistor or a completely different element.

As mentioned, this statement is fair not only for bipolar transistors, but also for field. Therefore, after determining the type of element, it is necessary to specify the class of the transistor (bipolar or field) on the marking applied to its housing.

Field transistor FR5305 on the instrument printed circuit board. Nearby is the type of element - VT

Any transistor has its own typosal or labeling. An example of marking: KT814. You can find out all the parameters of the element. As a rule, they are specified in Datasheet. He is a reference sheet or technical documentation. There may also be transistors of the same series, but slightly with other electrical parameters. Then the name contains additional characters at the end, or, less often, at the beginning of the labeling. (for example, the letter A or D).

Why bother with all kinds of additional designations? The fact is that in the process of production it is very difficult to achieve the same characteristics in all transistors. There is always a certain, albeit small, but the difference in the parameters. Therefore, they are divided into groups (or modifications).

Strictly speaking, the parameters of transistors of different parties can vary quite significantly. This was especially noticeable earlier when the technology of their mass production was only rejected.

Reading schemes is impossible without knowing the conditional graphic and letter designations of the elements. Most of them are standardized and described in regulatory documents. Most of them were published in the last century a new standard Only one was adopted, in 2011 (GOST 2-702-2011 ECD. Rules for the implementation of electrical schemes), so that sometimes a new element base is indicated by the principle of "how someone invented". And this is the complexity of reading the schemes of new devices. But, mostly, the conditional designations in electrical circuits are described and familiar to many.

There are often two types of designations in diagrams: graphic and alphabetic, also often affix the nominal. According to this data, many can immediately say how the scheme works. This skill is developing for years of practice, and to begin with, it is necessary to understand and remember the conditional designations in electrical circuits. Then, knowing the work of each element, you can imagine the end result of the device.

For compiling and reading various schemes Usually different elements are required. There are many types of schemes, but in electrics are usually used:

There are still many other types of electrical schemes, but in your home practice they are not used. Exception - the route of passing cables on the site, the supply of electricity to the house. This type of document will definitely need and will be useful, but it is more plan than the scheme.

Basic images and functional signs

Switching devices (switches, contactors, etc.) are built on contacts of various mechanics. There is a closing, opening, switching contacts. The closing contact in the normal state is open, when it is transferred to the operating condition, the circuit closes. The discontinuing contact is in a normal state, and under certain conditions it triggers, the erosion chain.

Switching contacts two and three positions. In the first case, one chain works, then the other. In the second there is a neutral position.

In addition, contacts can perform different functions: contactor, disconnector, switch, etc. All of them also have a conditional designation and are applied to the appropriate contacts. There are functions that perform only mobile contacts. They are shown in the photo below.

The main functions can only perform fixed contacts.

Conditions of single-line schemes

As mentioned, only the power part is indicated on single-line schemes: UZO, automata, diphawtomates, sockets, switches, switches, etc. and the relationship between them. The designations of these conditional elements can be used in electrical shield schemes.

The main feature of graphic conventional designations in electrical systems is that the device similar on the principle of the device differ in some kind of trifle. For example, an automatic (circuit breaker) and the switch differ only in two small parts - the presence / absence of a rectangle on the contact and form of a fixed contact icon, which displays the contact data functions. The contactor from the designation of the chopper features only a form of an icon on a fixed contact. A very small difference, and the device and its functions are others. All these trifles need to look after and memorize.

Also a small difference between the symbols of the Uzo and the differential automaton. It is also only in the functions of movable and still contacts.

Approximately the same is the case with reel coils and contactors. They look like a rectangle with small graphic supplements.

In this case, remember it easier, since there are quite serious differences in the appearance of additional icons. With PHOTEL, so very simple - the rays of the sun are associated with the arrows. The pulse relay is also quite easy to distinguish according to the characteristic form of the sign.

A little simpler with lamps and connections. They have different "pictures". Connecting connection (type socket / plug or socket / plug) looks like two brackets, and collapsible (such as a terminal block) - Circles. Moreover, the number of pairs of checks or circles indicates the number of wires.

Image of tires and wires

In any diagram, communication is associated and for the most part they are performed with wires. Some bonds are tires - more powerful conduction elements from which taps can be disappeared. The wires are denoted by a thin line, and the places of branches / connections are points. If there are no points - this is not a compound, but an intersection (without an electrical connection).

There are separate images for tires, but they are used if you need to graphically separate them from communication lines, wires and cables.

On the mounting schemes, it is often necessary to designate not only how the cable or wire is passed, but also its characteristics or method of laying. All this is also displayed graphically. For reading drawings, this is also necessary information.

How to depict switches, switches, sockets

For some types of this equipment approved by the standards of images. So, dimmers (light-keys) and push-button switches remained without the designation.

But all other types of switches have their own conventions in electrical circuits. They are open and hidden installation, respectively, groups of icons are also two. The difference is the position of the feature on the key image. To understand the diagram about which type of switch is speech, it must be remembered.

There are separate designations for two-block and triple switches. In the documentation, they are called "dual" and "built", respectively. There are differences and for enclosures with varying degrees of protection. Prices with normal operating conditions put switches with IP20, can before IP23. In wet rooms (bathroom, pool) or on the street, the degree of protection should be no lower than IP44. Their images are distinguished by the fact that the mugs are painted. So it's easy to distinguish them.

There are separate images for switches. These are switches that allow you to control the on / off light from two points (there are from three, but without standard images).

The same trend is observed in the designations of sockets and socket groups: there are single, dual outlets, there are groups of several pieces. Products for premises with normal operating conditions (IP from 20 to 23) have an unpainted middle, for wet with a case increased protection (IP44 and above) The middle is tinted with dark color.

Legend In electrical circuits: sockets of different types Installations (open, hidden)

Understanding the designation logic and remembering some source data (the characteristic image of the open and hidden setting is different, for example), after a while you can confidently focus in the drawings and schemes.

Lamps in diagrams

This section describes the symbols in the electrical circuits of various lamps and lamps. Here the situation with the designations of the new element base is better: there are even signs for lED lamps and lamps, compact luminescent lamps (housekeeping). It is also nice that the images of various type lamps differ significantly - it is difficult to confuse. For example, lamps with incandescent lamps are depicted in a mug, with long linear luminescent - long narrow rectangle. The difference in the image of a linear lamp of a luminous type and LED is not very high - only dashes at the ends - but it can be remembered.

The standard has even conditional designations in electrical circuits for the ceiling and suspension lamp (cartridge). They also have a rather unusual form - the circles of a small diameter with dashes. In general, in this section focus easier than in others.

Elements of the concepts of electrical circuits

Circuit diagrams of devices contain another element base. Links, terminals, connectors, light bulbs are also depicted, but, in addition, there are a large number of radio elements: resistors, tanks, fuses, diodes, thyristors, LEDs. Most of the conventional designations in the electrical circuits of this element base are shown in the figures below.

More rare will have to be signed separately. But in most schemes contains these elements.

Literal conventions in electrical circuits

In addition to graphic images, elements in diagrams are signed. It also helps to read the schemes. Next to the alphabetic designation of the item often its serial number. This is done to then easily find the type and parameters in the specification.

The table above shows international designations. There is a domestic standard - GOST 7624-55. Exposures from there with a table below.

In order to collect the scheme which only radio components and do not need: resistors (resistance), transistors, diodes, capacitors, etc. From the manifold of radio components, you need to be able to quickly distinguish in the appearance of the necessary, decrypt the inscription on its body, to determine the base. All about it will be discussed below.

Capacitor.

This item is practically found in each scheme of amateur structures. As a rule, the easiest condenser is two metal plates (plates) and air between them as a dielectric. Instead of air there may be porcelain, mica or other material that is not conducted. Through condenser d.C. not passes, but alternating current Through the condenser passes. Thanks to this property, the capacitor put where it is necessary to separate the constant current from the variable.

The capacitor has the main parameter - this capacity.

Capacity unit - microphrade (ICF) is taken as a basis in amateur structures and in industrial equipment. But the other unit is more often used - picofarad (PF), a millionth fraction of microfrarad (1 μF \u003d 1 000 nf \u003d 1,000,000 PF). In the diagrams you will meet the other one. Moreover, the capacity of up to 9100 PF inclusively indicate the schemes in picofarades or nanoforades (9H1), and over-in microfarades. If, for example, next to the conditional designation of the capacitor is written "27", "510" or "6800", it means that the capacitance of the capacitor, respectively, 27, 510, 6800 PF or N510 (0.51 NF \u003d 510 PF or 6N8 \u003d 6.8 NF \u003d 6800pf). But the numbers 0.015, 0.25 or 1.0 indicate that the capacitance capacitance is the corresponding number of microfrades (0.015 μF \u003d 15 NF \u003d 15,000 PF).

Types of capacitors.

Capacitors are constant and variable capacity.

W. variable condensers Capacity varies when rotating the protruding outward axis. In this case, one pad (movable) fits on non-movable without contacting it, the resulting capacity increases. In addition to these two types, in our structures, another type of capacitors is used - trimmed. It is usually installed in a particular device in order to choose more precisely to select the desired container and more condenser do not touch. In amateur structures, the trimmed condenser is often used as a variable - it is more cheaper and more affordable.

Capacitors are distinguished by material between plates and design. There are air, mica, ceramic and others condensers, etc. This species permanent capacitors - not polar. Another type of capacitors - electrolytic (polar). Such capacitors are released large capacity - from the tenth lobe of the ICF to several dozen ICF. In the diagrams, not only the capacity, but also the maximum voltage to which they can be used are indicated. For example, the inscription 10.0 x 25 B means that a capacitor with a capacity of 10 μF needs to be taken to a voltage of 25 V.

For variables or trim capacitors, the diagram indicates the extreme values \u200b\u200bof the container, which are obtained if the axis of the condenser is rotated from one extreme position to another or rotate the spent (as in trim capacitors). For example, the inscription 10 - 240 indicates that in one extreme position of the axis the capacitance of the capacitor is 10 PF, and in the other - 240 PF. With a smooth turn, from one position to another capacitor capacity will also be smoothly changed from 10 to 240 PF or back - from 240 to 10 PF.

Resistor.

I must say that this item, like a condenser, can be seen in many homemade. It is a porcelain tube (or rod), on which the finest film of metal or soot (carbon) is sprayed outside. On low-quality high-power resistors from above, the nichrome thread is wound. The resistor has resistance and is used to set the desired current in electrical chain. Recall an example with a tank: changing the pipe diameter (load resistance), one or another water flow rate can be obtained ( electricity various strength). The thinner the film on the porcelain tube or the rod, the more resistance to the current.

Resistors are permanent and variables.

From permanent, most often used resistors of the MLT type (metallized lacquered heat-resistant), Sun (moisture resistance), ULM (carbon lacquered small-sized), from variables - SP (AC resistance) and SPO (resistance variable volume). Appearance permanent resistors shown in fig. below.

Resistors are distinguished by resistance and power. Resistance is measured in Omah (OM), kiloma (com) and megaoms (IOM). The power is expressed in watts and denote this unit with TW letters. Resistors of different power are characterized by sizes. The greater the power of the resistor, the greater its size.

The resistance of the resistor is affixed in diagrams next to its conditional designation. If the resistance is less than 1 com, the numbers indicate the number OM without a unit of measurement. With a resistance of 1 com and more - up to 1 MΩ indicate the number of kiloma and put the letter "K". The resistance of 1 MΩ and above is expressed by the number of mega with the addition of the letter "M". For example, if 510 is written next to the designation of the resistor, it means that resistor resistance is 510 ohms. Designations 3.6 K and 820 K corresponds to the resistance of 3.6 com and 820 com, respectively. The inscription in the scheme 1 m or 4.7 m means that 1 MΩ resistance is used and 4.7 mΩ.

Unlike permanent resistors having two conclusions, variable resistors of such conclusions are three. The diagram indicates the resistance between extreme conclusions. a variable resistor. The resistance between the average conclusion and extreme changes during the rotation of the protruding the axis of the resistor. Moreover, when the axis is rotated in one direction, the resistance between the middle conclusion and one of the extreme increases, respectively, decreasing between the average conclusion and the other extreme. When the axis turn back, the reverse phenomenon occurs. This property of the variable resistor is used, for example, to adjust the sound volume in amplifiers, receivers, TVs, etc.

Semiconductor devices.

Them is whole group Details: Diodes, Stabilians, Transistors. In each detail used semiconductor material, or easier semiconductor. What it is? All existing substances can be divided into three large groups. Some of them are copper, iron, aluminum and other metals - the electric current is well carried out - these are conductors. Wood, china, plastic do not spend current. They are non-expenses, insulators (dielectrics). Semiconductors occupy an intermediate position between conductors and dielectrics. Such materials are conducted only under certain conditions.

Diodes.

At the diode (see fig. Below) two outputs: anode and cathode. If you connect a battery with poles: plus to anode, minus to the cathode, in the direction of the anode to the cathode flows the current. The resistance of the diode in this direction is small. If you try to change the poles of the batteries, that is, turn on the "on the contrary" diode, then the current will not go through the diode. In this direction, the diode has greater resistance. If you pass through a diode alternating current, then at the output we will only get one half-wave - it will be though a pulsating, but permanent current. If the alternating current is submitted to four diodes included by the bridge, then we already get two positive half-waves.

Stabilians.

These semiconductor devices also have two outputs: anode and cathode. In the forward direction (from the anode to the cathode), Stabilod works as a diode, freeingly passing the current. But in the opposite direction, he initially does not miss the current (as well as a diode), and with an increase in the voltage supplied to it suddenly "makes itself" and starts to pass the current. The voltage of the "breakdown" is called stabilization voltage. It will remain unchanged even with a significant increase in the input voltage. Due to this property, Stabilitron finds use in all cases when it is necessary to obtain a stable supply voltage of some device with oscillations, such as network voltage.

Transistors.

From semiconductor devices, the transistor (see Fig. Below) is most often used in electronics. He has three outputs: base (b), emitter (E) and collector (K). Transistor - amplifying device. It can be conventionally compared with such a device known to you like a mouthpiece. It is enough to say something in front of the narrow hole of the horn, sending a wide one-friend who stands in several dozen meters, and a voice enhanced by a horn will be well heard in the distance. If you take a narrow hole for the entry of the amplifier's horn, and the wide - per exit, then we can say that the output signal is several times more input. This is the indicator of the enhanced abilities of the horn, its gain.

Now the variety of radio components produced is very rich, so there are not all types of their types in the figures.

But back to the transistor. If you pass through the site base - emitter weak current, it will be reinforced with a transistor in dozens and even hundreds of times. The reinforced current will flow through the collector - emitter. If the transistor is ringing a multimeter base-emitter and base collector, then it looks like a measurement of two diodes. Depending on the largest current, which can be passed through a collector, transistors are divided into low-power, medium and high power. In addition, these semiconductor devices can be r-P-R structures or N-r-n. So there are transistors with different alternation of semiconductor layers (if there are three layers of material in the diode, three). Strengthening the transistor does not depend on its structure.